Effective Strategies to Attract Bees and Butterflies
Intro
Creating a garden that invites bees and butterflies is akin to crafting a masterpiece. It’s more than just planting a few flowers; it involves an understanding of the needs and preferences of these vital pollinators. With the decline in their populations, the role they play in maintaining our ecosystems has never been more crucial. The act of attracting these creatures can elevate not just the biodiversity of your garden but its beauty as well.
Understanding the intricacies of what bees and butterflies seek in their environments is fundamental. From nectar-rich plants to the right habitats for their lifecycle stages, every choice counts. Let’s dive into some essential strategies for drawing these pollinators into your outdoor haven.
The Importance of Pollinators in the Ecosystem
Pollinators like bees and butterflies play a pivotal role in maintaining the health and diversity of ecosystems around the globe. Their activities are not just beneficial but rather essential for the survival of many plant species, which, in turn, supports a wide range of insects, birds, and other wildlife. Understanding this significance is crucial for anyone looking to foster an environment that thrives.
Role of Bees and Butterflies in Pollination
Bees and butterflies contribute substantially to the process of pollination, which is the transfer of pollen from the male part of a plant to the female part. This is crucial for fertilization, enabling plants to produce seeds and fruits. Consider this: about 75% of the world’s flowering plants depend on animal pollination. Without these diligent insects, our food sources would dwindle dramatically.
Some flowers have evolved specific traits to attract these pollinators. For example, bees are drawn to blue and yellow hues, while butterflies are often more responsive to bright colors. Gentle breezes and sweet nectar also play their part in making certain plants irresistible. When gardeners plant a variety of flowers that cater specifically to these preferences, they create a buffet for pollinators, increasing the likelihood of successful pollination.
Impact on Biodiversity
The connection between pollinators and biodiversity is a thread that weaves through the fabric of nature. When pollinators do their job, they assist various plants in reproducing, which creates a rich tapestry of flora. This biodiversity is not merely aesthetic; it fuels healthy ecosystems.
A garden that attracts bees and butterflies will often support many other forms of life. This wide array of species helps build resilience against pests and diseases, utilising the natural checks and balances that occur in a balanced ecosystem. The decline of any pollinator species can lead to a ripple effect, causing other species reliant on these plants to also diminish.
Consequences of Declining Pollinator Populations
It is sobering to consider the implications of dwindling pollinator numbers, yet this reality has been increasingly observed. Recent studies suggest that around one in every four bee species in North America is at risk of extinction. The decline can be attributed to various factors such as habitat loss, pesticide use, and climate change.
When pollinators falter, the consequences can be dire. Crops that require these pollinators may yield less, leading to food shortages and increased prices. Furthermore, a reduction in flowering plants impacts not just other insects but also birds and mammals that rely on these plants for nutrition.
"By safeguarding pollinators, we not only protect our gardens but also sustain the interconnected web of life that enriches our planet."
Mitigating the decline of these vital insects starts right in our backyards. By taking steps to create environments conducive to attracting bees and butterflies, gardeners can play a role in reversing this trend. Ultimately, supporting these pollinators is an investment in both biodiversity and food security.
Understanding Pollinator Preferences
Creating a thriving garden where bees and butterflies can flourish hinges heavily on understanding their preferences. Acknowledge that these insects are not just random visitors; they are essential players in the ecosystem. Knowing what they like helps in cultivating a garden that not only serves them well but also enhances the overall biodiversity.
Pollinators are drawn to specific qualities in flowers, ranging from color and scent to the abundance of nectar and pollen. This insight lets gardeners roll out the welcome mat for these vital creatures. Better flower choices lead to more visits, which in turn means better pollination of plants, leading to more fruits, seeds, and a richer garden experience.
Flower Characteristics Favoring Pollinators
The characteristics of flowers significantly influence their attractiveness to pollinators. Generally, bees and butterflies are more drawn to certain shapes and structures. For instance, tubular flowers can be a real magnet for hummingbirds, while flat, open blossoms tend to appeal to a wider variety of bees.
- Shape: Flowers with accessible structures can lead the way to a busy garden. Try blooms that are flat or shallow like daisies, which allow easy access to nectar.
- Size: Smaller flowers can attract certain types of bees, like mason or leaf-cutter bees. So it’s worth considering a variety of sizes to create a diverse environment.
- Inflorescence: Clusters of flowers can be double-edged swords. On one hand, they offer abundant nectar to visitors, but on the other, they can also be less appealing if too dense. A mix could offer best of both worlds.
By paying attention to these factors, one can create a tactile and visually inviting garden for pollinators.
Color and Fragrance: Attractiveness to Bees and Butterflies
Color plays a pivotal role in attracting these insects. It’s not merely aesthetics; it’s about visibility and engagement. Bees, for example, are highly perceptive to colors in the blue and yellow spectrum. They might overlook red hues as they do not see them in the same vivid way that humans might.
- Best Colors for Bees: Blue, purple, and yellow flowers often grab their attention and invite them in.
- Butterflies benefit from bright colors too, showing a preference for vibrant blooms like orange, pink, or even red. Flowers with landing pads make it easier for them to pause and extract nectar.
In addition to color, fragrance can’t be overlooked. It’s the olfactory cue that nature offers to attract these beneficial insects.
- Fragrant Flowers: Consider incorporating flowers such as lavender or lilac that emit strong scents. These flowers signal their availability and encourage visitation.
- Day vs. Night: Some butterflies and night-flying pollinators such as moths seek out blooms that release fragrance in the evening. Create a mix for both daytime and nighttime interest.
Nectar and Pollen Sources: What They Seek
The quest for nectar and pollen is what drives pollinator activity. For gardeners, understanding these needs leads to making informed plant choices. Bees prefer flowers rich in both nectar and pollen, while butterflies are often seen sipping on nectar alone. Knowing these preferences can guide the selection of flora in your garden.
- Nectar-Rich Flowers: Plants such as bee balm, echinacea, and penstemon are great choices as they offer substantial nectar. These will naturally draw attention from bees.
- Pollinators’ Nutritional Needs: Consider planting flowers that produce both nectar and pollen. This offers a complete menu for your visiting friends. Species like sunflowers or asters provide what bees and butterflies crave.
"Creating a balance in plant variety guarantees a bustling environment for pollinators, which is crucial for both their survival and the health of the ecosystem."
In summary, getting to grips with what attracts bees and butterflies is just the first step. It’s about crafting an inviting garden that supports their lifestyles. This is the real beauty of gardening—transforming mere space into a vibrant sanctuary for these indispensable pollinators.
Selecting the Right Plants
Choosing the right plants is crucial when your goal is to create a sanctuary for bees and butterflies in your garden. Not all plants are created equal in the eyes of these essential pollinators, and paying attention to their needs can make a palpable difference. This section will elucidate how native plants, the decision between annuals and perennials, and the creation of seasonal blooms serve as pivotal elements in your gardening strategy.
Native Plants and Their Benefits
Native plants are those that naturally occur in a specific region without human intervention. They have adapted to local conditions over eons. This adaptability means they often require less maintenance and fewer resources than non-natives. By using native plants, gardeners not only support local ecosystems, but they also foster healthy populations of pollinators.
- Ecological Impact: Native plants provide habitats and food sources that local pollinators recognize. For example, coneflowers and asters provide nectar to butterflies on the wing. Once you integrate them into your garden, you’re promoting natural communities.
- Resilience: Because these plants have adapted to local soil and climate conditions, they typically require fewer fertilizers and pesticides. This can result in a healthier garden environment that encourages pollinator visitation.
- Soil Health: Native plants enhance soil structure and pest resistance, which can further benefit surrounding flora in the garden. When you see a bumblebee flitting from one native bloom to another, you know you’re onto something good.
Annuals vs. Perennials
The debate between planting annuals or perennials is akin to the tortoise and the hare. Each has its role to play, but understanding the differences is key for anyone looking to attract pollinators.
- Annuals: These plants complete their life cycle within a single growing season. They bloom profusely—a great advantage for attracting hungry pollinators. Flowers like zinnias and cosmos bloom all summer long, providing a feast for bees and butterflies. However, they require replanting each year, which can involve more effort.
- Perennials: In contrast, perennials come back year after year. Their root systems deepen over time, allowing for more resilience against drought and pests. Plants like milkweed or bee balm not only provide consistent blooms but also offer habitats for pollinators year after year.
Ultimately, a combination of both can create a garden that is both colorful and vibrant, continuously drawing visitors from the pollinator community.
Creating Seasonal Blooms for Continuous Foraging
Another significant consideration in plant selection is the timing of blooms. A garden that flowers year-round offers a reliable food source for bees and butterflies, ensuring that those creatures that visit are well-fed even in lean times.
- Spring: Start with early bloomers like crocuses or daffodils. These will bring the first pollinators out of hibernation.
- Summer: As spring blossoms fade, embrace summer stalwarts like sunflowers and echinacea, which burst forth in the heat, keeping those wings flapping.
- Fall: Finally, late bloomers like sedum and asters offer sustenance into autumn, welcoming the last hungry guests before winter sets in.
"Cultivating a mix of plants that bloom at different times ensures that your garden remains a buzzing hub of activity throughout the growing season."
By pruning your plants and allowing some to naturally seed, you will encourage diversity and abundance, turning your garden into a rich buffet. In summary, the selection of plants is one of the most vital strategies in attracting bees and butterflies, ensuring their vital presence and longevity in our ecosystems.
Designing the Garden for Pollinators
Creating an inviting environment for bees and butterflies requires careful planning. It's not just about planting a few flowers; it involves designing a habitat that meets the specific needs of these essential creatures. A well-planned garden helps increase the presence of these pollinators, ultimately leading to healthier plants and a thriving ecosystem.
Creating Diverse Habitats
Layering Plant Heights
Layering plant heights can lead to a more engaging garden that mimics natural environments. The varying heights of plants create a rich tapestry that encourages different species to visit. Taller plants provide shelter for pollinators, while lower plants are easier for them to access. This gives a delightful visual effect, but more importantly, it makes the garden more appealing.
One unique feature of layering is how it facilitates movement for pollinators. They can navigate between plants without encountering stagnant air, which is particularly beneficial on warm days when pollinators are most active. However, a downside might be the need for regular maintenance to ensure that taller plants do not overshadow shorter ones, thereby disrupting the balance of the garden.
Incorporating Different Plant Families
Incorporating different plant families is vital for attracting a wider variety of pollinators. Each family has its unique traits, such as different flower structures or blooming periods, which can attract specific pollinator species. Mixing plant families fosters a more dynamic ecosystem, providing food and habitat for bees and butterflies.
The key characteristic here is diversity. A garden filled with assorted plants is likely to create a more stimulating environment, with various shapes and colors to intrigue pollinators. However, selecting plants from different families requires some knowledge of plant compatibility and may lead to more complex maintenance routines. Plants not suited to the local climate won't thrive, and they might even outcompete your natives, which are more beneficial overall.
Water Sources: Importance for Sustenance
Water is as critical as the right plants in nurturing pollinator populations. Lightweight water sources, such as shallow dishes, should be scattered throughout your garden. These not only serve as hydration for bees and butterflies but also attract other creatures that contribute to the ecological balance. A small fountain or birdbath can be particularly effective, provided it's kept clean and free from chemicals.
A subtle benefit of including water sources is the visual charm they add. Water features catch the light, creating sparkling reflections that enhance the beauty of your garden. Yet another benefit is promoting the concept of an ecosystem; when you develop a water source, you invite various interactions between species beyond just the pollinators.
Shelter and Nesting Sites for Pollinators
Providing shelter is paramount in the design of a pollinator-friendly garden. Different species have various needs—some prefer nests in the ground, while others seek out hollow stems or leaves. Incorporating natural materials such as brush piles, bee hotels, or even leaving some areas of bare soil creates essential space for these insects.
The unique feature of offering diverse nesting sites is that it allows a broader range of pollinator species to find safe spots. A single nesting option might limit the types of pollinators that visit; by including various structures, you're expanding your garden's appeal.
To summarize, a garden designed with diverse habitats, water sources, and shelter in mind significantly enhances its ability to attract and support bee and butterfly populations. These strategies contribute not only to visual richness but also to the ecological functions vital for our gardens and the broader environment.
Sustainable Gardening Practices
Sustainable gardening practices are essential for anyone looking to create a thriving garden that attracts bees and butterflies. These practices focus on maintaining the ecological balance while enhancing the biodiversity within the garden. Using sustainable methods helps ensure that pollinators have a lasting and welcoming habitat to visit.
When gardens utilize sustainable methods, they often boast healthier plants and a lower environmental footprint. This interconnectedness with nature fosters not only a rich environment for pollinators but also provides gardeners with a sense of satisfaction by knowing they are contributing positively to the ecosystem.
Avoiding Pesticides: Impacts on Pollinators
One of the most significant threats to bees and butterflies is the widespread use of pesticides. Many gardeners unknowingly apply these chemicals, thinking they will protect their plants. However, the reality is that these harmful substances can have devastating effects on pollinator populations.
For instance, studies have shown that neonicotinoids can disorient bees, affecting their ability to navigate back to their hives. In turn, this can lead to reduced reproductive success and an overall decline in their populations. Moreover, even trace amounts of pesticides can be lethal to these delicate creatures. Therefore, steer clear of chemical solutions and opt for natural alternatives.
Using Organic Methods for Pest Control
Organic gardening methods emphasize using natural resources to manage pests, which aligns perfectly with the goal of supporting pollinators. Techniques like introducing beneficial insects—like ladybugs and lacewings—can help keep harmful pests in check without endangering bees and butterflies.
Additionally, practices such as companion planting, where certain plants are grown together to naturally repel pests, can be effective. For example, planting marigolds alongside vegetables not only beautifies the garden but also deters aphids. Furthermore, incorporating barriers like row covers or using homemade sprays made from soap or garlic can also protect plants without harming pollinators.
Soil Health as a Foundation for Plant Growth
Healthy soil is the cornerstone of any successful garden. When soil is rich in nutrients and teeming with microorganisms, plants can flourish and produce the nectar and pollen that bees and butterflies rely on. To enhance soil health, consider adding organic matter such as compost or well-rotted manure. This enriches the soil and aids in moisture retention, creating a supportive environment for plant roots.
Moreover, soil testing can identify nutrient deficiencies, allowing you to tailor amendments specifically to what your plants need. Establishing a diverse range of plants will not only help improve soil structure but also create a varied habitat for pollinators.
"Healthy soil is crucial for vibrant plants and thriving pollinator populations."
Monitoring and Supporting Pollinator Activity
Monitoring and supporting pollinator activity is not just a passive observation; it’s an active engagement on the part of the gardener. This section bridges the gap between creating an inviting garden and understanding how it operates within the larger ecosystem. By keeping a close eye on the pollinators that visit, you can gain critical insights into their behaviors, preferences, and health, which ultimately contributes to sustaining biodiversity. Additionally, it can help tailor your garden’s features to better accommodate these important insects.
Observing Pollinator Visits: Understanding Patterns
First off, let’s talk about observing pollinator visits. This isn’t merely about noting which bees or butterflies flutter past; it’s about decoding their preferences and behaviors. Set aside some time to sit quietly in your garden. Bring a notebook, if that’s your style, or simply use your phone to jot down notes. Observe the times of day they are most active, how long they linger on particular plants, and which ones draw the biggest crowds.
- Time of Day: Many bee species are most active in the morning when flowers are full of dew and nectar.
- Species Preference: Different species of butterflies might prefer distinct flowers. For instance, monarchs have a soft spot for milkweed, while painted ladies are drawn to a variety of blooms.
Understanding these patterns will help optimize your garden design. For instance, if you find that honeybees flock to lavender more in the evening, consider clustering lavender with other evening-blooming plants.
Documenting Species Diversity in Your Garden
Documenting species diversity is another key component in fostering a healthy environment for pollinators. When you keep track of which species visit your garden, you not only celebrate these visitors but also enhance your understanding of local ecology. You might consider employing an app for easy documentation or simply create a chart with sightings and dates.
- Record Keeping: Maintain a spreadsheet or a physical log where you note the date, species, and number of individuals observed.
- Visual Records: Take pictures! Having a visual archive helps in identifying which specific species frequent your garden.
By doing this, you can collaborate with local biodiversity projects or share your findings with other enthusiasts, thus contributing to a broader understanding of pollinator behavior and diversity.
Participating in Citizen Science Projects
Lastly, participating in citizen science projects is an enriching way to broaden your impact on pollinator conservation. These initiatives often need help in gathering data from local gardeners. Not only do you contribute to valuable scientific research, but you’re also likely to meet like-minded individuals who share your passion for gardening and ecology.
- Join Local Networks: There are many organizations and online platforms that connect citizen scientists. Look for groups in your area that focus on biodiversity and pollinator health.
- Contribute Your Data: Many projects encourage participants to submit their observations. This can be as simple as entering your findings online or contributing to a community-driven database.
Engaging in these projects allows you to play a role in the greater narrative of pollinator preservation. The data you collect can inform local conservation strategies and can even shape public policy to better support these crucial insects.
Agreed, supporting pollinator activity is a joint effort; not only for the health of our gardens but for the vitality of ecosystems at large.
Educating Others About Pollinator Gardens
In the effort to create vibrant spaces that beckon bees and butterflies, there lies an equally important task: educating others about these beautiful, buzzing allies. Spreadin the word not only increases awareness, it encourages broader participation in conservation efforts. The more people who understand the significance of pollinators, the more gardens bloom with life and color, creating a ripple effect throughout communities.
Benefits of Educating About Pollinators
- Biodiversity Boost: When we teach our neighbors about the role of bees and butterflies, we cultivate appreciation for biodiversity. Pollinators are crucial for many plants, and more pollinator-friendly gardens lead to more diverse ecosystems.
- Community Engagement: Knowledge sharing fosters community spirit. Hosting discussions or events can unite individuals and families toward a common goal, building a network of like-minded enthusiasts.
- Sustainable Practices: By educating others, we can promote sustainable gardening techniques that mitigate the use of pesticides and harmful chemicals. This is essential for the health of our gardens and ecosystems.
Sharing Knowledge with the Community
Actively engaging with the community allows for a spread of knowledge that can empower individuals to take positive action. Consider startin small by organizing community meetings or informal gatherings at local parks to discuss the benefits of pollinator gardening. Wood be great to share personal experiences and remembrances, as narrative is often a powerful teacher.
Education can also be enhanced through visual aids, such as posters showing common local pollinators and their preferred plants. Not only does this reach a wider audience, but also makes the concept tangible.
- Tips for Community Sharing:
- Use local language and cultural references to resonate better.
- Partner with schools or community centers for workshops.
- Create easy-to-understand pamphlets outlining the basics of attracting pollinators.
Creating Workshops and Demonstration Gardens
Creating workshops can be a wonderful way to engage the community. Setting up hands-on sessions where people can plant flowers, learn about the insects they’ll attract, and understand garden layout can inspire many.
Demonstration gardens are another invaluable tool for education. By establishing a space filled with a variety of plants that attract polllinators, residents can observe firsthand the beauty and activity that these gardens bring.
- Workshop Ideas:
- Build-a-Garden Day: Participants learn to construct their pollinator garden while planting species that cater to local bees and butterflies.
- Bee Hotel Construction: Teach attendees how to build structures that provide habitat for solitary bees, fostering community involvement and conservation
Utilizing Online Platforms for Awareness
In the digital age, the online world is a powerful platform for awareness. Sharing knowledge through social media, blogs, or local community websites can expand your reach to platforms previously untapped.
Additionally, engaging in groups on platforms like Reddit or Facebook can help connect individuals from diverse backgrounds, allowing them to share tips and gather ideas for attracting pollinators. Filming short videos, or even starting a simple online series about pollinator-friendly gardening, can reach an audience far beyond your local area.
- Online Strategies:
- Join local gardening groups to share best practices and ideas.
- Create events on social media platforms to encourage discussions or events centered around pollinators.
- Utilize platforms like Facebook to promote local workshops or gardening initiatives.
"Education is the passport to the future, for tomorrow belongs to those who prepare for it today."
As such, the importance of educating others about pollinator gardens cannot be understated. Through community engagement, hands-on workshops, and savvy use of online platforms, we can foster a culture that values and protects these essential creatures. Together, we can pave the way for flourishing ecosystems.
The Role of Local Governments and Organizations
The involvement of local governments and organizations in promoting bee and butterfly-friendly environments is crucial. These entities can drive awareness and create structured programs that empower communities to take action for pollinator health. By establishing policies that encourage environmentally friendly practices and initiatives, local governments play a pivotal role in ensuring the sustainability and vitality of pollinator populations in urban and rural settings.
Supporting Pollinator-Friendly Policies
Local governments can introduce and promote policies aimed at protecting pollinators. This might include zoning laws that dictate appropriate land use which limits pesticide use, promotes native landscaping, or requires new developments to include pollinator-friendly features. The enforcement of such rules encourages residents to consider the needs of these insects, creating a ripple effect throughout the community.
Moreover, cities can establish buffer zones around agricultural lands to slow pesticide drift, or promote organic farming techniques that are less harmful to pollinators. Encapsulating these policies within broader environmental goals helps reinforce the importance of biodiversity at all levels of governance. When the government shows that it cares about pollinators, the community tends to follow suit.
Collaborating with Environmental Groups
Partnerships between local governments and non-profit environmental organizations can significantly amplify efforts to promote pollinator health. These collaborations can lead to the development of educational programs, workshops, and community projects that highlight the importance of pollinators in the ecosystem.
An example of collaboration could be community planting days organized in conjunction with local NGOs. Via these events, citizens not only learn about appropriate plant choices for attracting pollinators but also actively participate in enhancing their neighborhoods. Through joint initiatives, local governments can leverage resources and expertise from these organizations to maximize outreach and impact.
Funding for Community Pollinator Projects
Local governments can also play a critical role in funding projects that support pollinator-friendly practices. This includes grants for community gardens that feature native plants, pollinator sanctuaries, or educational installations that instruct the public on supporting these beneficial creatures.
Such initiatives might be coupled with larger environmental strategies like urban regeneration or sustainability programs. The goal should be to create pockets of ecosystems within urban landscapes that cater to both bees and butterflies. Access to funding could inspire volunteerism and community spirit, as groups pool their resources to enhance local biodiversity. Additionally, when citizens see their government taking steps to support such initiatives, it fosters a sense of responsibility and pride in caretaking their environment.
"Healthy ecosystems rely on diverse forms of life, and pollinators are among the essential players in this network. By working together, organizations and government can create spaces where these creatures thrive."
Through these efforts, local governments have the opportunity to lead by example, encouraging citizens to adopt practices that benefit not only pollinators but the broader ecosystem. As awareness and appreciation for pollinators grows, so too does the potential for a more biodiverse, resilient environment.
The End: A Unified Approach to Attracting Pollinators
In the quest to create thriving gardens that not only captivate the eye but also nurture vital ecosystems, a unified approach to attracting pollinators is paramount. This article has elucidated various strategies encompassing plant selection, garden design, and sustainable practices to foster an environment where bees and butterflies can flourish. It’s essential to recognize that everything is connected; the choices we make in our gardens can ripple through the ecosystem, affecting not just pollinators but the entire biological web.
When gardeners thoughtfully combine native plants that produce a diverse array of flowers, they offer bees and butterflies the necessary food sources throughout the growing season. Planting in layers, where taller species provide shade for more delicate blooms below, can enhance garden diversity and create microhabitats conducive to various pollinator species. These methods, combined with the nurturing of shelter areas for nesting and resting, ensure a garden teeming with activity.
Moreover, adopting sustainable gardening practices like reducing pesticide use and focusing on organic solutions fosters a safe haven for these creatures. Maintaining soil health is another fundamental aspect that supports healthy plant growth, which in turn attracts pollinators. Through continuous monitoring and observation, gardeners can adapt their strategies based on visitor preferences, cultivating a dynamic relationship with their environment.
The goal is as simple as it is profound: create spaces that sing to the bees and butterflies, making them feel at home.
By fostering community knowledge and engagement, the collective effort can amplify these strategies' effectiveness. Whether via workshops in schools or discussions in local gardening clubs, sharing insights can build awareness and encourage more people to embrace pollinator-friendly practices. Organizing with local governments or organizations can further buttress these initiatives through support and funding, nurturing a culture of biodiversity.
Summarizing Key Takeaways
To distill the essence of creating an inviting sanctuary for pollinators, here are the key takeaways:
- Diverse Plant Selection: Choose a range of native plants to ensure food availability across seasons.
- Seasonal Blooms: Layer plants with overlapping blooming periods to continually provide nectar.
- Sustainable Practices: Diminish pesticide use and incorporate organic gardening methods to protect pollinator health.
- Water and Shelter: Include water sources and create habitats that offer shelter to bees and butterflies.
- Community Engagement: Promote knowledge sharing and collaboration among local gardeners and organizations to enhance awareness and participation.
By embracing these strategies, gardeners can not only contribute positively to their local environments but also inspire others to do the same, building a collective force for biodiversity one backyard at a time.
